Architecture in Ancient India

Q.1 In which of the following rock-cut caves eleven headed Bodhisattava image is depicted? (U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2017)

(a) Ajanta (b) Ellora (c) Kanheri (d) Karle

Ans. (c)

Exp:

The eleven-headed Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara is depicted in the Kanheri Caves in Maharashtra. The Kanheri Caves are an important Buddhist rock-cut complex located near Mumbai.
Ajanta is particularly famous for its Buddhist paintings, including Padmapani and Vajrapani.
Ellora contains Buddhist, Hindu and Jain caves, while Karle is especially famous for its early Buddhist chaitya hall.
Hence, option (c) is correct.

Q.2 Which of the following temples is an example of rockcut architecture ? (U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2012)

(a) Shore Temple, Mamallapuram.

(b) Rajarajeshwara temple, Thanjavur.

(c) Kailasa Temple, Ellora.

(d) Jagannatha Temple, Puri.

Ans. (c)

Exp:

The Kailasa Temple (Cave 16) at Ellora is one of India's greatest examples of monolithic rock-cut architecture. It was commissioned during the reign of the Rashtrakuta ruler Krishna I (8th century CE). Unlike a structural temple, which is constructed by assembling separately quarried stones, Kailasa was excavated directly from the living rock.
Shore Temple, Mamallapuram: Built under the Pallava ruler Narasimhavarman II (Rajasimha). It is a structural stone temple, not a rock-cut/monolithic temple. It was constructed using stone blocks.
Rajarajeshwara Temple, Thanjavur: Also called Brihadisvara Temple. Built by Rajaraja Chola I, completed around 1010 CE. It is a magnificent structural temple, not rock-cut.
Jagannatha Temple, Puri: A major Kalinga-style structural temple. Not a rock-cut monument.

Hence, option (c) is correct.

Q.3 Match List – I with List – II and select the correct answer from the codes given below: (U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2013)

List – I List – II

(Gupta Temple ) (Location)

A. Brick-built Temple 1. Eran

B. Dasavatara Temple 2. Deogarh

C. Shiva Temple 3. Bhitargaon

D. Vishnu Temple 4. Bhumara

Code :

A B C D

(a) 4 2 1 3

(b) 3 2 4 1

(c) 2 1 3 4

(d) 1 3 2 4

Ans. (b)

Exp:

Brick-built Temple → Bhitargaon:

The Bhitargaon Temple in Uttar Pradesh is a famous Gupta-period brick temple, generally dated to the 5th century CE. It is one of the earliest surviving substantial brick temples in India.

Dasavatara Temple → Deogarh:

The Dashavatara Temple at Deogarh, Uttar Pradesh, is a famous Gupta-period temple dedicated to Vishnu and is an important early example of Nagara temple architecture.

Shiva Temple → Bhumara:

The Bhumara Shiva Temple in Madhya Pradesh is a Gupta-period temple dedicated to Shiva. It is particularly noted for its Shiva linga and sculptural remains.

Vishnu Temple → Eran:

Eran, Madhya Pradesh, has important Gupta-period remains, including a temple dedicated to Vishnu, along with its famous monumental Varaha sculpture.

Q.4 With reference to the history of Indian rock-cut architecture, consider the following statements: (UPSC - 2013)

1. The caves at Badami are the oldest surviving rockcut caves in India,

2. The Barabar rock-cut caves were originally made for Ajivikas by Emperor Chandragupta Maurya.

3. At Ellora, caves were made for different faiths.

Which of the statements given above is /are correct?

(a) Only 1 (b) 2 and 3 (c) Only 3 (d) All of these

Ans. (c)

Exp:

The Badami caves are Early Chalukyan rock-cut caves, mainly dating to the 6th–7th centuries CE. They cannot be the oldest surviving rock-cut caves because the Barabar caves of Bihar date to the 3rd century BCE, during the Mauryan period. So Statement 1 is incorrect.
The Barabar caves were associated with the Ajivikas, but the ruler mentioned is wrong. They were excavated/patronized during the reigns of Ashoka and his grandson Dasharatha, not Chandragupta Maurya. So Statement 2 is incorrect.
Ellora is famous for representing three religious traditions: Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism. The caves were created over several centuries and demonstrate the coexistence of different religious traditions in the region. So, statement 3 is correct.

Hence, option (c) is correct.

Q.5 The painting of Bodhisattva Padmapani is one of the most famous and oft-illustrated paintings at – (UPSC - 2017)

(a) Ajanta (b) Badami (c) Bagh (d) Ellora

Ans. (a)

Exp:

The Bodhisattva Padmapani is one of the most celebrated paintings of the Ajanta Caves in Maharashtra.
Padmapani means “lotus in hand” (padma = lotus, pani = hand).
The figure is generally identified with Avalokiteshvara, the Bodhisattva of compassion.
It is associated with Ajanta Cave 1.

Ajanta's major surviving paintings belong largely to the Vakataka period, especially the 5th century CE.

Q.6 Consider the following historical places : (UPSC - 2013)

1. Ajanta Caves

2. Lepakshi Temple

3. Sanchi Stupa

Which of the above places is/are also known for mural paintings?

(a) Only 1 (b) 1 and 2 (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) None

Ans. (b)

Exp:

· Ajanta Caves — Ajanta is world-famous for its Buddhist mural paintings, especially those belonging largely to the Vakataka period. Important examples: Bodhisattva Padmapani, Bodhisattva Vajrapani, Jataka stories, Scenes from the life of the Buddha.

· Lepakshi Temple — The Veerabhadra Temple at Lepakshi, Andhra Pradesh, is famous for its Vijayanagara-period mural paintings. The ceilings contain extensive paintings depicting: Hindu deities, Stories from Hindu Scriptures, Scenes from the Ramayana and Mahabharata, Various religious and courtly themes. These are among the finest surviving examples of Vijayanagara mural art.

· Sanchi Stupa — Sanchi is primarily famous for its Buddhist stupas, gateways (toranas), railings and relief sculptures. Its famous artistic tradition is principally stone relief sculpture, rather than mural painting.

Q.7 What is/are common to the two historical places known as Ajanta and Mahabalipuram? (UPSC - 2016)

1. Both were built in the same period.

2. Both belong to the same religious denomination.

3. Both have rock-cut monuments.

Select the correct answer using the codes given below.

(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) None of the statements given above is correct

Ans. (b)

Exp:

Statement 1 is incorrect because Ajanta and Mahabalipuram belong to different periods. The development of Ajanta began around the 2nd century BCE, with major activity during the Vakataka period in the 5th century CE, whereas the major monuments of Mahabalipuram (Mamallapuram) were created mainly under the Pallavas during the 7th–8th centuries CE.
Statement 2 is incorrect because Ajanta and Mahabalipuram represent different religious traditions. Ajanta is primarily associated with Buddhism, whereas Mahabalipuram is predominantly associated with Hinduism, particularly Shaivism and Vaishnavism, under the Pallavas.
Statement 3 is correct because both Ajanta and Mahabalipuram contain rock-cut monuments. Ajanta is famous for its rock-cut Buddhist caves, chaityas and viharas, while Mahabalipuram contains rock-cut caves, mandapas and monolithic rathas, such as the Varaha Cave and Mahishasuramardini Cave.

Hence, option (b) 3 only is correct.

Q.8 Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer from the codes given below: (U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2014)

List - I List – II

A. Hampi 1. Puducherry

B. Nagarjunakonda 2. Karnataka

C. Shishupalgarh 3. Andhra Pradesh

D. Arikamedu 4. Odisha

Code :

A B C D

(a) 2 3 4 1

(b) 3 2 4 1

(d) 4 2 3 1

Ans. (a)

Exp:

Hampi → Karnataka: Located in Vijayanagara district, Karnataka, Hampi was the former capital of the Vijayanagara Empire and is famous for monuments such as the Virupaksha Temple, Vittala Temple and Stone Chariot; it is also a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Nagarjunakonda → Andhra Pradesh: Located in present-day Palnadu district, Andhra Pradesh, Nagarjunakonda was an important centre of Buddhism during the Satavahana and Ikshvaku periods, with archaeological remains including Buddhist stupas, monasteries and sculptures.
Shishupalgarh → Odisha: Located near Bhubaneswar, Odisha, Shishupalgarh was an important early historic fortified urban settlement, generally associated with the Kalinga region and dated broadly to the early centuries BCE/CE.
Arikamedu → Puducherry: Located near Puducherry, Arikamedu is famous for evidence of Indo-Roman maritime trade, with archaeological finds including Roman amphorae, Arretine ware and beads.

Q.9 Which of the following is/are famous for Sun temples? (UPSC - 2017)

1. Arasavalli

2. Amarkantak

3. Omkareshwar

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

Ans. (a)

Exp:

· Arasavalli, in present-day Andhra Pradesh, is famous for the Sri Suryanarayana Swamy Temple, dedicated to Surya (Sun God). It is one of the important surviving Sun temples of India.

· Amarkantak in Madhya Pradesh is primarily famous as the source of the Narmada and Son rivers and as an important pilgrimage centre. It is not famous for a major Sun temple.

· Omkareshwar in Madhya Pradesh is famous for the Omkareshwar Jyotirlinga, dedicated to Shiva, not for a Sun temple.

Q.10 Consider the following statements and select the correct answer using the codes given below: (U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2020)

1. The Sun temple of Multan is mentioned by Hiuen Tsang, Abuzaiyid, AI-Masudi and Alberuni.

2. The pilgrimage to Sambapur was associated with Sun worship.

Codes :

(a) Only 1 is correct

(b) Only 2 is correct

(d) Neither 1 nor 2 is correct

Ans (c)

Exp:

· The famous Sun Temple of Multan was an important centre of Surya worship and was described by several foreign travellers/writers, including:

· Hiuen Tsang (Xuanzang) — 7th century CE

· Abu Zaid al-Sirafi — 9th century

· Al-Masudi — 10th century

· Al-Biruni — 11th century

· Thus, Statement 1 is correct.

· Sambapur/Sambalpur was associated with the cult of Surya (Sun worship). The tradition is connected with Samba, son of Krishna, who is said to have established Sun worship after being cured of leprosy.

· Thus, Statement 2 is also correct.

Hence, option (c) Both 1 and 2 are correct.

Q.11 Where is Borobudur Stupa situated ? (U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2013)

(a) Cambodia (b) Java (c) Sumatra (d) Borneo

Ans. (b)

Exp:

Borobudur is a massive Mahayana Buddhist monument/stupa complex located on the island of Java, Indonesia, near Magelang in Central Java. It was built around the 8th–9th century CE, during the Shailendra dynasty.

Q.12 The Rath temples at Mahabalipuram were built by – (U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2014)

(a) Cholas (b) Pallavas (c) Chedis (d) Chalukyas

Ans. (b)

Exp:

· The Rath temples (Pancha Rathas) at Mahabalipuram (Mamallapuram) were constructed during the Pallava period, particularly under Narasimhavarman I (Mamalla) in the 7th century CE.

Q.13 The Seven Ratha Temple of Mahabalipuram was built by – (U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2015)

(a) Mahendra Varman

(b) Narasimha Varman

(d) Nandi Varman

Ans. (b)

Exp:

· The Seven Rathas (Pancha Rathas) at Mahabalipuram were built during the reign of Narasimha Varman I (Mamalla) of the Pallava dynasty, in the 7th century CE.

· Mahendra Varman I — He was an important early Pallava patron of rock-cut cave architecture, but the Mahabalipuram Rathas are associated with Narasimha Varman I.

· Parameshvara Varman I — He was a later Pallava ruler and is not associated with the construction of the Pancha Rathas.

· Nandi Varman — He belonged to a later phase of Pallava rule and is not the ruler associated with these Rathas.

· Remember:

o Mahendra Varman I → Cave temples

o Narasimha Varman I (Mamalla) → Mahabalipuram Rathas

o Narasimha Varman II (Rajasimha) → Shore Temple & Kailasanatha Temple

Q.14 The Nagara, the Dravida the Vesara are: (UPSC - 2012)

(a) The three main racial groups of the Indian subcontinent.

(b) The three main linguistic divisions into which the languages of India can be classified.

(d) The three main musical gharanas were prevalent in India.

Ans. (c)

Exp:· Nagara, Dravida and Vesara are terms used to describe major styles of Hindu temple architecture in India.

Nagara Style → Mainly associated with North India.

o Characteristic feature: curvilinear Shikhara.

o Examples: Khajuraho temples, Kandariya Mahadeva Temple.

Dravida Style → Mainly associated with South India.
Characteristic feature: pyramidal Vimana and large Gopurams.
Examples: Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur; Shore Temple.
Vesara Style → Generally associated with the Deccan region and often described as a combination of Nagara and Dravida features.
Examples are found particularly in Deccan temple architecture, including sites associated with the Chalukyas.

Q.15 With reference to the cultural history of India, the term Panchayatan’ refers to – (UPSC - 2014)

(a) An assembly of village elders

(b) A religious sect

(d) An administrative functionary

Ans. (c)

Exp:

Panchayatan refers to a style or plan of temple construction in which the main shrine is surrounded by four subsidiary shrines.
Thus, the temple complex generally consists of five shrines—one principal shrine and four subsidiary shrines.
The term is derived from “Pancha” meaning five and “Ayatana” meaning abode or shrine.
The Dashavatara Temple at Deogarh, Uttar Pradesh is commonly cited as an important example of the Panchayatan plan.

Hence, option (c) is correct.

Q.16 With reference to the Indian history of art and culture, consider the following pairs: (UPSC – 2014)

Famous work of Site

sculpture

1. A grand image of Buddha’s : Ajanta

Mahaparinirvan a with numerous

celestial musicians above and the

sorrowful fi gures of his followers

below

2. A huge image of Varaha Avatar : Mount Abu

(boar incarnation) of Vishnu, as he

rescues Goddess Earth from the

deep and shaotic waters, sculpted

on rock

3. ‘Arjuna’s Penance”/Descent of : Mamallapuram

Ganga’’ Sculpted on the surface

of huge boulders

Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?

(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

Ans. (c)

Exp:

Pair 1 — Buddha’s Mahaparinirvana : Ajanta :- This pair is correct. The Mahaparinirvana of Buddha is depicted in the Ajanta Caves. The scene shows the reclining Buddha, with celestial musicians above and mourning disciples/followers below, expressing grief over his death.
Pair 2 — Varaha Avatar : Mount Abu :- This pair is incorrect. The famous monumental Varaha (boar incarnation) of Vishnu, showing Varaha rescuing Bhudevi (Earth) from the cosmic waters, is associated with Udayagiri Caves in Madhya Pradesh, not Mount Abu. The Udayagiri Varaha is a major example of Gupta-period sculpture, generally dated to the reign of Chandragupta II.
Pair 3 — Arjuna’s Penance / Descent of Ganga : Mamallapuram :- This pair is correct. The enormous open-air rock relief known as “Arjuna’s Penance” or “Descent of the Ganga” is located at Mamallapuram (Mahabalipuram), Tamil Nadu. It was created during the Pallava period, particularly associated with Narasimhavarman I (Mamalla).

Q.17 Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the codes given below: (U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2017)

List-I List-II

A. Gandhar Art 1. Menander

B. Junagarh Rock 2. Patika

inscription

C. Milindapanha 3. Kushanas

D. Taxila inscriptions 4. Rudradamana I

Code :

A B C D

(a) 1 3 4 2

(b) 2 4 3 1

(d) 2 1 3 4

Ans. (c)

Exp:

· Gandhara art flourished particularly under the Kushanas, especially during the reign of Kanishka. It is famous for its realistic representation of Buddha and strong Greco-Roman artistic influence.

· The famous Junagadh (Girnar) Rock Inscription of Rudradaman I, the Western Kshatrapa ruler, is an important Sanskrit inscription. It records the repair of the Sudarshana Lake.

· Milindapanha ("Questions of Milinda") records a philosophical dialogue between King Menander (Milinda) and the Buddhist monk Nagasena.

· The Taxila copper-plate inscription is associated with Patika (Patika Kusulaka), a ruler/mahakshatrapa of the Indo-Scythian period.

Q.18 With reference to the art and archaeological history of India, which one among the following was made earliest? (UPSC - 2015)

(a) Lingaraja Temple at Bhubaneswar

(b) Rock-cut Elephant at Dhauli

(d) Varaha Image at Udayagiri

Ans. (b)

Exp:

· The Rock-cut Elephant at Dhauli, Odisha was made during the reign of Emperor Ashoka, in the 3rd century BCE. It is therefore earlier than all the other monuments listed.

· Lingaraja Temple, Bhubaneswar:

The present Lingaraja Temple belongs to the 11th century CE, associated with the Somavamsi period. Hence, much later than Ashoka.

· Rock-cut Monuments at Mahabalipuram:

The major rock-cut monuments of Mahabalipuram belong mainly to the 7th century CE, under the Pallavas, particularly Narasimhavarman I.

· Varaha Image at Udayagiri:

The monumental Varaha relief at Udayagiri Caves belongs to the Gupta period, generally dated to the early 5th century CE, during Chandragupta II's reign.

· Chronological Order:

o Dhauli Elephant → Udayagiri Varaha → Mahabalipuram → Lingaraja

Q.19 Consider the following pairs : (UPSC - 2023)

Site Well known for

1. Besnagar : Shaivite cave shrine

2. Bhaja : Buddhist cave shrine

3. Sittanavasal : Jain cave shrine

How many of the above pairs are correctly matched?

(a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All three (d) None

Ans: (b)

Exp:

· Besnagar is famous for the Heliodorus Pillar, a Vaishnavite monument dedicated to Vasudeva, not a Shaivite cave shrine. Hence, pair 1 is incorrectly matched.

· Bhaja caves are a group of 22 rock-cut caves dating back to the 2nd century BCE located in Pune (Maharashtra). The caves are 400 feet above the village of Bhaja. It belongs to the Early Buddhist schools. Hence, pair 2 is correctly matched.

· Sittannavasal, a small village in Pudukkottai district in Tamil Nadu, is known for its fresco mural paintings in the Arivar Koil, a rock-cut Jain cave temple, and for Ezhadippattam, a natural cavern. Sittannavasal was a hub for Jainism from the 1st century BCE to the 10th century CE. Hence, pair 3 is correctly matched.

· Therefore, option (b) is the correct answer.

Q.20 The Prime Minister recently inaugurated the new Circuit House near Somnath Temple at Veraval. Which of the following statements are correct regarding Somnath Temple? (UPSC - 2022)

1. Somnath Temple is one of the Jyotirlinga shrines.

2. A description of Somnath Temple was given by Al-Biruni.

3. Pran Pratishtha of Somnath Temple (installation of the present day temple) was done by President S. Radhakrishnan.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

Ans: (a)

· Somnath temple stands at the shore of the Arabian Sea on the western side of the Indian subcontinent. Shree Somnath is first among the twelve Aadi Jyotirlingas of India. Hence, statement 1 is correct.

· Al-Biruni described Somnath in his writings. Mahmud of Ghazni subsequently raided the temple in 1025–26 CE. Hence, statement 2 is correct.

· The modern temple was reconstructed with the resolve of Sardar Patel who visited the ruins of Somnath temple on November 13, 1947. Then President of India, Dr. Rajendra Prasad, did the Pran- Pratistha at the existing temple on 11th May, 1951. Hence, statement 3 is not correct.

· Therefore, option (a) is the correct answer.

Q.21 Which of the following temples has/have a Nagara-style shikhara? (UPSC - 2026)

1. Malegitti Shivalaya, Badami

2. Huchimalligudi Temple, Aihole

3. Dashavatara Temple, Deogarh

4. Virupaksha Temple, Pattadakal

Select the answer using the code given below :

(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 3 only (d) 3 and 4

Ans. (b)

Exp:

· Huchimalligudi Temple, Aihole : This is an important example of Early Chalukyan experimentation with Nagara architecture. It has a curvilinear Rekha-Nagara shikhara over the sanctum.

· Dashavatara Temple, Deogarh : The Gupta-period Dashavatara Temple at Deogarh is one of the earliest surviving examples associated with the Nagara-style shikhara.

· Malegitti Shivalaya, Badami : It is an Early Chalukyan temple but its superstructure follows the Dravida style, with a pyramidal/stepped form rather than a curvilinear Nagara shikhara.

· Virupaksha Temple, Pattadakal : The Virupaksha Temple, built under Queen Lokamahadevi, is predominantly Dravida style, with a stepped pyramidal vimana, not a Nagara curvilinear shikhara.

Therefore 2 and 3 → (b).

Q.22 Which of the following statements on the Amaravati Stupa and its relief sculpture is/are correct? (UPSC - 2026)

1. It was located in the lower Krishna valley.

2. In India, it was next only to the Sanchi Stupa in size.

3. The Amaravati school of sculpture made a lasting impact on the later South Indian sculpture, and its products were carried to Sri Lanka and South-east Asia.

Select the answer using the code given below:

(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 3 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1,2 and 3

Ans. (b)

Exp:

· The Amaravati Stupa (Mahachaitya) was situated in the lower Krishna River valley, in present-day Andhra Pradesh, near Dharanikota/Amaravati. It developed as an important Buddhist centre under the Satavahanas and later Ikshvakus. Statement 1 is correct.

· The Amaravati Stupa was not merely second to Sanchi in size. Available archaeological descriptions place the Amaravati monument as larger than the Great Stupa at Sanchi; its reconstructed base diameter was roughly 50 m, compared with about 36.5 m for Sanchi. Statement 2 is incorrect.

· The Amaravati School of Sculpture had a significant influence on later South Indian sculpture. Its artistic influence also spread beyond India, particularly to Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia, aided by maritime and Buddhist networks. Statement 3 is correct.